Compounds in saṁskr̥ta

Introduction

In saṁskr̥ta, compounds—composed words—are a characteristic feature and play a significant role in Sanskrit literature. In German, we also find many and sometimes long compounds, such as "Fußballweltmeisterschaft" (World Cup) or “Yogatraditionsmerkmale” (Yoga tradition characteristics). Compounds are written together in both Sanskrit and German and appear as a single word.

However, there are differences. In German, a compound is a word formation, a word composed of several words, used as a normal word. In saṁskr̥ta, however, it is not grammatically a single unit, but a structure of several words that together have a meaning. Compounds thus represent an entire sentence or clause, and there are different interpretation possibilities, as we will see later.

In German, there can sometimes be differences in the meaning of the compound compared to the individual words. For example, the word “Großstadt” (big city) has a slightly different meaning than “eine große Stadt” (a big city). Such differences are not present in saṁskr̥ta. Furthermore, the possibilities for forming compounds in German are limited. To continue with this example: The word “Großstadt” exists, but “Hübschstadt” (pretty city) is not common. Such restrictions are hardly found in saṁskr̥ta.

In both languages, compounds with idiomatic meaning, i.e., with special meaning, have developed in certain phrases or everyday usage. Examples are “Augenblick” (moment), “Junggeselle” (bachelor), or “Flugzeug” (airplane). These also exist in saṁskr̥ta but are much rarer than in German.

Example Sentences with Compounds:

Example 1:

atha yogānuśāsanam I Yoga Sutra 1.1  

Now [follows] the teaching of Yoga.  

yogānuśāsanam is a compound consisting of yoga and anuśāsanam. yoga is translated as “of Yoga” (genitive). anuśāsanam is in the nominative— the teaching.

Example 2:

udyāne sundara-kusumāni paśyāmi I  

In the garden (udyāne) I see (pasśyāmi) beautiful flowers (sundara-kusumāni).  

sundara-kusumāni is a compound consisting of the adjective sundara (beautiful) and the noun kusumāni (flowers). Literally translated, it would be “beautiful flowers.”

Example 3:  

cāru-vadanā strī I  

The woman (strī) has a lovely face (cāru-vadanā).  

cāru-vadanā is a compound consisting of the adjective cāru (lovely) and the noun vadana (face). Literally translated, it would be “lovely-faced.”

How is a Compound Constructed?

In general, compounds in saṁskr̥ta consist of two words or elements, although both the first and the second element can themselves be compounds. We limit ourselves here to two-part compounds. In most cases, the first word describes the second more closely.

The individual words in the compound can be nouns, pronouns, adjectives, participles, and adverbs. The first word appears in its base form, without an adapted ending. It is not declined, so it is not clear in which case the word is. Therefore, the relationship to the other word in the compound is not explicitly indicated, leading to different interpretations, and the meaning must be derived from the context.

The second word is adapted according to its function in the sentence (e.g., object or subject) or to the word it refers to. The Sandhi rules are applied in compounds.

What Types of Compounds Exist in saṁskr̥ta?

The five main types of compounds are:

1. tatpuruṣa: The first word is in a case relation to the second word.
2. karmadhāraya: Both words are in the same case.
3. dvandva: “and” connection of words
4. bahuvrīhi: tatpuruṣa or karmadhāraya describing another element (e.g., object, animal, person) not part of the compound.
5. avyayībhāva: The first word is an indeclinable word, and the second word is a noun.

The following are descriptions of the individual types with some examples. There are a number of special forms that we will not go into detail here.

tatpuruṣa Compound 

Example: 

daṇḍāsanam: “the posture of the staff”  

First word:
daṇḍa, Masculine (m), base form - staff, stick  

Second word: 
āsanam, Nominative (nom), Singular (sg), Neuter (n) of āsana - posture, seat  

Note: As we do not form sentences with the names of postures in yoga practice, the base forms (without the “m” at the end) are used.

The Sandhi rule applies. The short “a” at the end of daṇḍa is contracted with the long “ā” at the beginning of āsanam.

The second word is specified by the first word. It is a posture. What kind of posture? The posture of the staff.

The first word is in an unexpressed case relation to the second. Posture of the staff = genitive. Therefore, this compound is referred to as a genitive tatpuruṣa.

daṇḍāsanam ends with -am and is a noun in the neuter gender, so it could be nominative or accusative, as the endings of the two cases in neuter are the same. Thus, it could function as the subject or the object in a sentence.

General Rule:  

The first word in a tatpuruṣa is always a noun or pronoun; the second word can be an adjective or a participle. Almost all cases are possible. This leads to different possibilities. Here are some examples:

• Accusative: svarga-gataḥ - gone to heaven
• Instrumental: agni-vināśaḥ - destruction by fire
• Dative: snāna-jalam - water for bathing
• Ablative: duḥkha-muktaḥ - freed from pain
• Genitive: rāma-pustakam - Rama’s book
• Locative: yuddha-kuśalaḥ - skilled in battle

The genitive tatpuruṣas are the most common. As can be seen from the examples, a tatpuruṣa can be a noun or an attribute, i.e., a closer description of something (as in “duḥkha-muktaḥ”).

tatpuruṣa Special Form: upapada  

The second word can also be a verbal root, which can be translated as an adjective or an agent. Here are some examples:

• veda-vid - knowing the Vedas / knower of the Vedas
• śāstra-jña* - knowing the śāstras / knower of the śāstras
• loka-kr̥t* - creating the world / creator of the world

* Verbal roots with a long “ā” shorten to “a,” and short vowels are appended with a “t.”

karmadhāraya Compound

Example:  

mahārājā: “the great king”  

First word: 
mahā, Adjective mahat in compound base form - great  

Second word: 
rājā, Nominative (nom), Singular (sg), Masculine (m) of rājan - the king  

The second word is specified by the first word. It is a king. What kind of king? A great one.

Unlike in tatpuruṣa, in karmadhāraya the first word does not stand in a case relation to the second. Both words are thought of in the same case, here in the nominative.

mahārājā with the ending ā is a nominative, so it functions as the subject in a sentence. (This is the masculine nominative ending of rājan.)

General Rule: 

Essentially, a karmadhāraya is a tatpuruṣa in which both words are in the same case. Moreover, there are more possible word types and combinations in karmadhāraya.

Here are some examples:

• Adjective + Noun: vr̥ddha-vyāghraḥ - old tiger
• Participle + Noun: hata-rākṣasī - slain demoness
• Numeral + Noun: tri-lokī - the group of the three worlds
• Particle + Participle: duṣ-kr̥tam - badly done
• Noun + Adjective: kusuma-mr̥duḥ - soft as a flower
• Noun + Noun: puruṣa-vyāghraḥ - man like a tiger

The first four combinations are the most common. The combination of numeral and noun is also called “dvigu” (two cows), always referring to a group consisting of the specified number of elements.

karmadhārayas can function as nouns or as descriptions of other sentence elements, taking on various roles (subject, object) in a sentence.

dvandva Compound

Example:  

sukha-duḥkham: “joy and sorrow”  

First word:
sukha, Neuter, Noun in base form - joy  

Second word:
duḥkham, Nominative (nom), Singular (sg), Neuter (n) of - “hands and feet.”

General Rule: 

dvandva means “pair,” and this type involves the juxtaposition of two or more nouns without an “and” (ca) in between.

If it is not a group like the example above, the dual ending is used for two words, and the plural ending is used for more than two words. The gender (genus) of the last word is used.

Here are some examples:

• Plural: gaja-siṁha-vyāghra-śr̥gālāḥ - elephants, lions, tigers, and jackals
• Dual: deva-manuṣyau - gods and humans
• Neuter Singular: karṇa-netram - ears and eyes

 

bahuvrīhi Compound 

Example:  

yata-kāmāḥ: Controlled desires  

yata-kāmo yogī: The yogi by whom the desires are controlled.

 

The bahuvrīhi compound is yata-kāmo. The “o” represents “aḥ,” indicating a visarga sandhi. It is in the nominative, singular, and masculine.

yogī is the reference word of the bahuvrīhi compound and is also in the nominative, singular, and masculine.

The bahuvrīhi compound describes the yogi, who is not part of the compound. It functions as an adjective or attribute referring to the yogi. Therefore, it matches the case, number, and gender with yogī, even though it concerns multiple desires.

General Rule:

A bahuvrīhi compound can be either a karmadhāraya or a tatpuruṣa, but the last word must always be a noun, and it describes something not part of the compound. The ending of the bahuvrīhi always matches the word it describes (reference word), even if the gender (genus) of the last word of the compound was originally different (gender change).

There are also bahuvrīhis where the reference word is unexpressed. The ending then indicates whether it refers to a female or male person, as seen in the last example below.

bahuvrīhis are common and are not always easy to recognize, especially when there is no gender change and the context is not clear.

Here are some examples:

• bahu-vrīhir deśaḥ - The country (deśaḥ) where there is much (bahu) rice (vrīhir).
• dur-balaḥ siṁhaḥ - The lion (siṁhaḥ) whose strength (balaḥ) is bad (dur).
• candra-mukhī kanyā - The girl (kanyā) whose face (mukhī) is like the moon (candra).
• pīta-vastrā - She, whose garment (vastrā) is yellow (pīta).

The original gender of vastra is neuter. Since a feminine ending is used here, it must be a bahuvrīhi, describing a woman as the ending is feminine.

The term "bahuvriihi" itself is also a bahuvrīhi compound. If it appears without a reference word in the masculine singular, i.e., bahuvrīhiḥ, it could also refer to a man who has much rice or whose rice is abundant.

avyayībhāva Compound 

Example:  

yathā-śakti: according to the power

The first word is an indeclinable word. yathā is an adverb and means "like" or "according to." A prefix could also be used in this position. The second word is a noun. In this case, śakti, originally feminine, means "power." The noun in this compound is always in the accusative, singular, neuter, regardless of the original gender of the word.

Here are some more examples:

• anu-gaṅgam - along the Ganges
• upa-giri - near the mountain
• yathā-vidhi - according to the rule
• yāvaj-jīvam - for a lifetime

These compounds are used as adverbs in sentences.

Example Sentence:  

yāvaj-jīvaṁ tāpasā anu-gaṅgaṁ jīvanti I  

For a lifetime (yāvaj-jīvaṁ), the ascetics live along the Ganges (anu-gaṅgaṁ).

In Conclusion... 

These explanations provide only a basic introduction to the study of compounds. There are other types, special uses, and irregular forms of compounds that we have not covered here.

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